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  Meaning Physical exercise, cognition, and brain health in aging refers to the interconnected relationship between regular bodily movement and its influence on mental processes—such as memory, attention, learning, and executive function—as well as the structural and functional integrity of the brain across the lifespan. As individuals age, natural biological changes occur in neural networks, neurotransmitter systems, and cerebral blood flow, which can lead to gradual cognitive decline. Physical exercise serves as a powerful, non-pharmacological intervention that can slow, prevent, or even partially reverse many of these age-related changes. This concept emphasizes that movement is not only beneficial for muscles and cardiovascular health but also plays a critical role in maintaining cognitive vitality and neurological resilience. Introduction Aging is accompanied by a progressive decline in many physiological systems, and the brain is no exception. Older adults frequently expe...

  Meaning Waste clearance in the brain refers to the biological processes responsible for removing metabolic by-products, misfolded proteins, damaged cellular components, and toxins that accumulate during normal neuronal activity. Unlike other organs, the brain lacks conventional lymphatic vessels within its parenchyma and instead relies on specialized systems such as the glymphatic pathway , cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulation, blood– brain barrier (BBB) transport mechanisms, and cellular degradation pathways like autophagy and proteasomal systems. These interconnected processes collectively maintain neural homeostasis. As the brain ages, efficiency of waste clearance declines, leading to accumulation of neurotoxic substances that contribute to cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases. Introduction Aging is accompanied by progressive changes in brain structure and function, including reduced synaptic plasticity, neuronal loss, and altered neurotransmission. A central ...

  Meaning Strategies for studying sex differences in brain aging refer to the systematic methodological, analytical, and conceptual approaches used to investigate how biological sex influences structural, functional, molecular, and cognitive changes in the brain across the lifespan. These strategies integrate neuroscience, genetics, endocrinology, neuroimaging, epidemiology, and computational modeling to identify sex-specific aging trajectories, vulnerability patterns, and resilience mechanisms. Introduction Brain aging is a complex, heterogeneous process involving gradual alterations in neural structure, connectivity, metabolism, and cognitive performance. Increasing evidence demonstrates that aging does not affect male and female brains identically. Sex-related differences emerge in brain volume decline, white matter integrity, neurotransmitter dynamics, hormonal modulation, and risk for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Histori...

  Meaning Assessing demographic bias in brain age prediction models refers to examining whether artificial intelligence (AI) systems estimate brain age differently across demographic groups such as sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and age ranges. These models use neuroimaging data and deep learning techniques to predict a person’s “brain age,” which can indicate neurological health. When demographic bias exists, predictions may systematically favor certain groups, leading to inaccurate or unfair outcomes. Introduction Brain age prediction has become an important tool in neuroscience and clinical research for identifying early signs of neurological disorders and tracking brain health. With the rise of deep learning, various model architectures—such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), transformers, and hybrid models—are increasingly used for this task. However, concerns about fairness and bias have grown, especially when models are trained on datasets that underrepresent...

   MEANING Metabolic Dysfunction–Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD) is a chronic liver disorder characterized by excessive accumulation of fat in hepatocytes in individuals with at least one metabolic risk factor, such as obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, or hypertension. MASLD represents a redefinition of the earlier term Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), emphasizing metabolic dysfunction as the central driver rather than excluding alcohol consumption alone. This shift reflects improved understanding of disease pathogenesis and aligns liver disease with systemic metabolic disorders.  INTRODUCTION MASLD has emerged as the most prevalent chronic liver disease worldwide, affecting approximately one-quarter of the global population. Its burden parallels the increasing prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and sedentary lifestyles. MASLD encompasses a disease spectrum ranging from simple steatosis to metabolic dysfunction–asso...

  Meaning Gut microbiota-mediated neuroinflammation refers to the influence of intestinal microorganisms on inflammatory processes in the brain that affect neural function, cognition, emotions, and behavior. The gut microbiota communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) through the gut–brain axis using neural, immune, endocrine, and metabolic pathways. When microbial balance is disrupted (dysbiosis), pro-inflammatory signals can be activated, contributing to neuroinflammation and increasing vulnerability to psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism spectrum disorders. Introduction Psychiatric disorders are complex conditions involving genetic, environmental, and biological factors. Emerging evidence highlights the gut microbiota as a critical regulator of brain development and mental health. The gut-brain axis enables bidirectional communication between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain, with inflammation acting ...